9.4 Semantic constituents related to verbs

Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that modify verbs.

9.4.1 Tense and aspect

Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate tense and aspect.

9.4.1.1 Tense

Use this domain for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate tense (also known as temporal deixis)--the time of a situation (event, activity, or state) in relation to a reference point, which is usually the time of utterance. The following definitions are taken from Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

  • present: the situation occurs simultaneously with the moment of speech.
  • past: the situation occurred before the moment of speech.
  • future: the situation takes place after the moment of speech; the speaker predicts that the situation in the proposition will hold.
  • crastinal: tomorrow.
  • hesternal: yesterday.
  • hodiernal: today, normally with past.
  • pre-hodiernal: before today.
  • post-crastinal: after tomorrow.
  • ancient past: used for narrating events in ancient or mythical time.
  • remote: combines with other tense labels to indicate a situation occurring temporally distant from the moment of speech.
  • immediate: a meaning label that may be combined with other tense labels to indicate a situation not simultaneous with the moment of speech, but very close to it.
  • immediate future: what is about to occur.
  • immediate past: occurring immediately before the moment of speech. Also called the Recent Past. Do not use this label if there is any sense of current relevance--use anterior for that.
  • Immediate may also be combined with anterior or imperative.
  • expected future: the situation is to occur in the near future; what is scheduled to happen.
  • narrative time: the use of a form with no other past uses for reporting a past narrative.
  • gnomic present: the situation described in the proposition is generic; the predicate has held, holds, and will hold for the class of entities named by the subject, such as 'Elephants have trunks'.
  • What general words refer to the tense of an event?
    tense, time
  • What words are used to indicate the present tense?
    (no words or affixes in English)
  • What words are used to indicate the past tense?
    -ed, (in English vowel replacement is also used to indicate past tense, e.g. run, ran)
  • What words are used to indicate the future tense?
    will, going to
  • 9.4.1.2 Aspect--dynamic verbs

    Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate aspects of dynamic verbs. Aspects describe the temporal contours of a situation. They may be combined with any of the tenses, either in the same morpheme or in combinations of morphemes. The following definitions are taken from Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

  • habitual: the situation is customary or usual, repeated on different occasion over a period of time. English 'used to' is past habitual; English 'Nancy sings' is present habitual.
  • continuous: a single situation is viewed as in progress, as maintained over a period of time; also called "durative." The English "Progressive" is a continuous restricted to dynamic words. English 'I am reading; *I am knowing the number'.
  • continuative: keep on doing what is being done. Restricted to dynamic words.
  • progressive: the action takes place simultaneously with the moment of reference, 'to be in the process of...'. This is more restricted than the English Progressive, which may be used for events that are not actually in progress at reference time: 'I am writing a book' may be used even if the speaker is not at that moment writing.
  • excessive duration: action is extended over a long period of time, longer than normal for that action.
  • limited duration: action performed for a relatively short or bounded period of time.
  • iterative: the action is repeated on one occasion; usually restricted to dynamic words, often further restricted to semelfactive words.
  • frequentative: action occurs frequently, not necessarily habitually, nor necessarily on one occasion, as is the iterative.
  • imperfective: the situation is viewed as unbounded in the sense that it is habitual, continuous, progressive, or iterative.
  • perfective: the situation is viewed as bounded temporally. It cannot be simultaneous with the moment of speech; in the non-past it is sometimes interpreted as future.
  • completive: to do something thoroughly and to completion, e.g. 'to shoot someone dead, to eat up'.
  • inceptive: the action or event begins. We are distinguishing this from the beginning of a state.
  • delimited: action is performed only a little.
  • The preceding terms or "Aspects" are not usually relevant to stative words.
  • What general words refer to an aspect of an event?
    aspect
  • What words are used to indicate that something has begun?
    begin, start, commence, beginning, the start, commencement, initiate, to institute, inception
  • What do people say when they want someone else to start?
    go, dig in, have at it, let's go, let's do it, move it, let's get going, "on your marks, get set, go", "ready, set, go"
  • What is a person called who starts something?
    initiator, founder, originator, starter
  • What words are used to indicate that someone is attempting to do something?
    try, attempt
  • What words are used to indicate that something is being done quickly?
    quick, quickly, rapidly
  • What words are used to indicate that something happened suddenly?
    sudden, suddenly, suddenness, immediate
  • What words are used to indicate something is continuing?
    continue, continuous, keep on
  • What words are used to indicate that something has been completed?
    complete, finish, succeed
  • 9.4.1.3 Aspect--stative verbs

    Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate aspects of stative verbs. Aspects describe the temporal contours of a situation. They may be combined with any of the tenses, either in the same morpheme or in combinations of morphemes. The following definitions are taken from Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

  • state exists: the state is begun before reference time and continues after reference time.
    is,
  • state commences: beginning of a state of "becoming." Often called Inceptive or Inchoative. If there is a morpheme specifically for this meaning, it is usually derivational and restricted to stative words. However, it is also possible for "Perfects" or "Perfectives" to have this as their use with stative words.
    becoming,
  • state ends: state existed in the past, but no longer exists. Also a possible meaning of "Perfects" or "Perfectives" in combination with stative words.
    no longer,
  • state continues: state is continuing a reference time.
    still,
  • state changes: (self-explanatory).
    turn,
  • 9.4.1.4 Relational tenses

    Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate relational tenses. Relational tenses describe situations where the reference time is not the same as the moment of speech. They may be combined with any of the tenses, either in the same morpheme or in combinations of morphemes. The following definitions are taken from Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

  • resulting state (resultative): action in the past produces a state that persists into the present.
    be... -en,
  • anterior continuing: past action continues into the present: 'I have waited over an hour' ( = and I'm still waiting).
    have been... -ing,
  • anterior: the situation occurs prior to reference time, and is relevant to the situation at reference time. This is different from a simple past or perfective, where the situation is reported for its own sake and independent of its relevance to any other situation.
    have... -en,
  • A form that signals a situation that is prior to and relevant to a past reference time will be coded with two meaning labels, past and anterior.
    had... -en,
  • 9.4.2 Agent-oriented modalities

    Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate agent-oriented modalities. Agent-oriented modalities describe internal or external conditions on a willful agent with respect to the completion of the predicate situation. They may be combined with any of the tenses, either in the same morpheme or in combinations of morphemes. The following definitions are taken from Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    71 Mode
  • ability: the agent of the verb has the mental or physical ability to complete the action of the main verb.
  • ability, mental: English: 'Melissa can speak Dutch'.
    can,
  • ability, physical: English: 'Hortense can swim the English Channel'.
    can,
  • attempt: the agent attempts to complete the action specified by the predicate. Note: this has a sense of incompleteness, and I have seen authors call this "Incomplete" and gloss the examples with 'try'.
    try to, attempt to,
  • desire: the agent of the verb desires or wants to complete the action of the verb.
    want to, would like to,
  • obligation: the agent is obliged to perform the action of the verb.
  • obligation, strong: it is absolutely incumbent upon the agent to complete the action of the main verb: 'I have to mail this letter today'.
    have to, must,
  • obligation, weak: it is recommended that the agent complete the action of the main verb: 'Harry ought to get a haircut before meeting Sue's mother'.
    ought to, should,
  • permission: the agent is allowed to complete the action of the main verb: 'The students may check books out for two weeks'.
    may,
  • root possibility: it is possible for the agent to carry out the action of the main verb; i.e. s/he is able and external conditions allow it: 'You can get that kind of paper at Ulbrich's'.
    can,
  • intention: the agent intends to carry out the action of the main verb: 'Sam's gonna take Sanskrit next semester'.
    gonna, going to, intend to,
  • andative: agent moves away from the deictic center in order to do something, literally 'be going to do something'. Of course such forms are often related to the verb 'to go' and also may have uses of intention and future.
    go to,
  • venitive: the agent moves toward the deictic center in order to do something, literally 'be coming to do something'. This may be related to the verb 'to come' and may have future uses as well.
    come to,
  • 9.4.2.1 Can

    Use this domain for words indicating that someone can do something.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    74 Able, Capable
  • What words indicate that someone is able to do something?
    can, know how to, be able to, have the ability to, capable,
  • What words refer to the ability of someone to do something?
    ability, capability, prowess,
  • What words indicate that someone is not able to do something?
    inability, unable, incapable,
  • 9.4.2.2 Can't

    Use this domain for words related to being incapable of doing something.

  • What words describe a person's inability to do a job?
    can't do something, not be able to do something, cannot, be incapable of, not be capable of, be unable to do something, someone's inability to do something, incompetent, unqualified, unfitted, untrained, not be equipped, be ill-equipped, powerless,
  • What words refer to a person's inability to do a job?
    incapacity, incompetence, inability, deficiency, lack of training
  • 9.4.2.3 Necessary

    Use this domain for words that a speaker uses to indicate that he thinks something must happen.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    71E Necessary, Unnecessary
  • What words indicate that something is necessary?
    must, need to, have to, have got to
  • What words describe something that is necessary?
    necessary, compulsory, essential, imperative, indispensable, inevitable, mandatory, obligatory, required, unavoidable, urgent, vital,
  • What words refer to something that is necessary?
    necessity, need, obligation, prerequisite, requirement,
  • What words describe something that is not necessary?
    unnecessary, extraneous, incidental, inessential, needless, nonessential, uncalled-for, unessential, unnecessary, unneeded,
  • 9.4.3 Moods

    Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate moods.

    9.4.3.1 Imperative

    Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate imperatives. The following definitions are taken from Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Use this domain for words and affixes that a speaker uses to indicate that he is making a command. English has no command word. Some languages change the form of the verb by adding an affix. Some languages have special verbs that are only or normally used as commands. Those verbs could be classified here.

  • imperative: the verb form used for direct commands in the 2nd person. If there are also 1st and 3rd person forms, the meaning can still be that of imperative, with the 1st and 3rd persons being interpreted as 'Let us, let him...', etc.
  • optative: the proposition represents the speaker's will. Translated into English as 'May you prosper', 'May we all meet again.' with counterfactual: 'If only he had...', etc.
  • hortative: the speaker is encouraging or inciting someone to action.
  • prohibitive: the mood for expressing negative commands. The English is 'Don't'.
  • admonitive: the command constitutes a warning: 'you had better not...'.
  • Meanings co-occurring with imperative:
  • polite: a mild or polite form of command.
  • delayed: the action of the command is to be carried out in the future rather than immediately.
  • immediate: the action of the command is to be carried out immediately.
  • strong: (self-explanatory).
  • What words indicate that the sentence is a command?
    (none in English)
  • What affixes indicate that the sentence is a command?
    (none in English), (in many Bantu languages) -e 'a verbal suffix indicating that the sentence is a command'
  • What words are only used in the imperative?
    whoa (stop)
  • 9.4.3.2 Hortative

    Use this domain for ways of saying that someone should do something. If I say someone should do something, I think it is good that he does it.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    71D Should, Ought
  • What words indicate that the speaker is encouraging or inciting someone to action.
    urge, request, let, why don't, please
  • What words indicate that something should be done?
    should, ought to, be responsible for, be duty bound,
  • What words indicate that something should not be done?
    should not, ought not to, caution
  • What words refer to something a person should do?
    duty, responsibility, obligation, onus, requirement,
  • What words describe the person who should do something?
    responsible,
  • What words describe someone who does what he should?
    dutiful, responsible
  • 9.4.3.3 Interrogative

    Use this domain for words that a speaker uses to indicate that he is asking a question. English has no question word, but other languages such as Japanese do.

  • What words indicate that the sentence is a question?
    (Japanese) ka? 'a particle coming at the end of a sentence to indicate that it is a question'
  • English has an interjection that is added to a statement that has the effect of questioning something about it.
  • 9.4.4 Epistemic moods

    Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate epistemic moods. Epistemic moods have the whole proposition in their scope and indicate the degree of commitment of the speaker to the truth or future truth of the proposition. They may be combined with any of the tenses, either in the same morpheme or in combinations of morphemes. The following definitions are taken from Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    71 Mode
  • possibility: the speaker is indicating that the situation described in the proposition is possibly true. Some markers with this meaning also indicate future time: 'He may arrive late because of the weather; It may snow again tomorrow; She could have already taken it'.
    may, could,
  • probability: the speaker is indicating that the situation described in the proposition is probably true. Some marker with this meaning also indicate future time. This is sometimes called the "Dubitative" in grammars: 'Paula should be home by now'.
    should,
  • inferred certainty: the speaker infers from evidence that the proposition is true: 'They must have killed a bear here (I can see blood on the snow)'.
    must have,
  • certainty: the speaker is emphasizing that the proposition is true.
    certainly,
  • uncertainty: the speaker is emphasizing that s/he doesn't know that the proposition is true.
    might,
  • indicative: main clause mood that also appears in questions. Contrasts with subjunctive, conditional, and imperative.
    [none in English]
  • 9.4.4.1 Certainly, definitely

    Use this domain for words that a speaker uses to indicate that he thinks something is certainly true or is certain to happen.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    71C Certain, Uncertain
  • What words indicate that something is certainly true?
    certainly, absolutely, definitely, there is no doubt, undoubtedly, without a doubt, without doubt, without a shadow of a doubt, unquestionably, be beyond dispute, there's no denying, there are no two ways about it, there is no question
  • What words indicate that something will certainly happen?
    certainly, definitely, be bound to, be sure to, be certain to, be assured of, be only a matter of time, be just a matter of time, cut and dried, you can bet your life, you can bet your bottom dollar, be a certainty, be a foregone conclusion, for sure
  • What words indicate that something will certainly succeed?
    can't go wrong, be a dead cert, it's in the bag, it's a safe bet, it's a sure bet, foolproof
  • What words refer to doing something in order to be certain that something will happen?
    make sure, make certain, insure, ensure, see that, see to it
  • What words indicate that something is certain to happen and nothing can be done to stop it?
    inevitable, whether you like it or not, willy nilly, be fated to, be destined to, predestined, be meant to be, pre-ordained, doomed, the inevitable
  • What words describe something that is certain?
    certain, definite, conclusive
  • What words indicate that something is certainly not true?
    absolute, assurance, assured, can, certain, certainly, certitude, clear, decided, decisive, definite, doubtless, established, fixed, guaranteed, incalculable, incontestable, incontrovertible, indisputable, indubitable, ineluctable, inevitable, infallible, inescapable, inevitable, irrefragable, irrefutable, positive, really, set, settled, single-minded, sure, sureness, trustworthy, unarguable, unavoidable, undeniable, unequivocal, unmistakable, unquestionable,
  • 9.4.4.2 Sure

    Use this domain for words related to being sure that something is true.

  • What words indicate that someone is certain about something?
    be sure, be certain, be positive, know, know very well, swear, I could have sworn, have no doubt, confident, convinced, satisfied (that), I bet, I'd put money on it, say what you like,
  • What words refer to making someone sure about something?
    convince
  • 9.4.4.3 Probably

    Use this domain for words that a speaker uses to indicate that he thinks something is probable or likely to occur.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    71B Probable, Improbable
  • What words indicate that something will probably happen?
    probably, likely, probable, be a strong possibility, it looks as if, it looks like, chances are, may well, be in the cards, as likely as not, I wouldn't be surprised if, I dare say, I should think, I guess
  • What words indicate that something is probably true?
    probably, likely, probable, it looks as if, it's a fair bet, may well, may easily, as likely as not, I should think
  • What words indicate that something is very probably true
    very probably, very likely, there is a strong likelihood, there is a strong probability, almost certain, be more than likely, in all probability, ten to one
  • What words indicate that something good will probably happen?
    ought to be, should be, promise to be, looks promising,
  • What words indicate that something bad will probably happen?
    be heading for, be in for, threaten, threat
  • What words indicate that someone or something will probably be successful?
    have a good chance, stand a good chance, be set to do something, be on course
  • What words indicate that someone will probably do something bad?
    be quite capable of, I wouldn't put it past him
  • What words indicate how probable it is that something will happen?
    likelihood, probability, prospect, chances, odds
  • What words indicate that something is possible but not very probable?
    unlikely, improbable, doubtful, remote
  • What words indicate that someone or something will probably not be successful?
    little chance, little hope, little prospect, have little chance, stand little chance, outside chance
  • 9.4.4.4 Possible

    Use this domain for words that a speaker uses to indicate that he thinks something is possible. Maybe implies that the speaker doesn't know something.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    71A Possible, Impossible
  • What words indicate that something is possible?
    possible, possibly, could, might, may, able, maybe, perhaps, sort of, I guess so
  • 9.4.4.5 Uncertain

    Use this domain for words that indicate that no one is certain that something is true, or when it is impossible to be certain that something is true.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    71C Certain, Uncertain
  • What words indicate that something is uncertain?
    uncertain, not be certain, not be clear, it's up in the air, there is uncertainty
  • What words indicate that something is uncertain, but it is likely that something bad will happen?
    uncertain, doubtful, be in doubt, there is doubt about, it's touch and go, hang in the balance, iffy
  • What words indicate that two things are equally possible?
    could go either way, borderline, there's a fifty-fifty chance, it's a toss-up
  • What words indicate that something is uncertain because people have many different opinions about it?
    debatable, questionable, open to question, open to debate, moot point
  • 9.4.4.6 Unsure

    Use this domain for words related to not feeling sure about something or someone.

  • What words refer to not being sure about something?
    not be sure, not be certain, be unsure, be uncertain, not know, doubt, wonder, can't be sure, not be confident, be indefinite about, ambivalent
  • What words refer to not being sure whether you should do something?
    have doubts, have reservations, have misgivings, have mixed feelings, have qualms, hesitant
  • What words refer to making someone unsure about something?
    make someone unsure, make someone uncertain, cause doubt, cause uncertainty, it makes you wonder, raise doubts
  • 9.4.4.6.1 Think so

    Use this domain for words indicating that you think something is true, but you are not completely sure about it.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    31E Suppose, Think Possible
  • What words indicate that you think something is true, but you are not completely sure about it?
    think, think it is possible, believe, bet, would gamble, would wager, guess, reckon, speculate, surmise, suspect, get the impression, have the impression, be under the impression, get the idea, feel, have the feeling, get the feeling,
  • What words indicate that you think something is true, but you have no proof of it?
    assume, assumption, presume, suppose, imagine, take it for granted, presumably, I take it
  • What do you say when you think something is true, but you are not sure?
    I think so, I guess so, as far as I know, to the best of my knowledge, as far as I'm aware,
  • 9.4.4.6.2 Maybe

    Use this domain for words that a speaker uses to indicate that he thinks it is possible that something may happen or be true, but he isn't certain.

  • What words indicate that maybe something may happen or is true?
    maybe, perhaps, may, might, it is possible, possibly, could, who knows?, there's a chance, you never know, conceivably,
  • What words indicate that the speaker is guessing about a number or amount, but is not certain?
    maybe, perhaps, possibly,
  • What words indicate that the speaker is not certain about a suggestion, plan, or idea?
    maybe, perhaps,
  • 9.4.4.6.3 Seem

    Use this domain for words indicating that something seems to be a certain way--you see (or hear) something and think something about it, but you are not sure that what you think is true.

  • What words indicate that something seems to be a certain way, but you are unsure?
    seem, appear, look, sound, give the impression, have a (certain) look, come across as, show signs of, strike someone as, have all the hallmarks of, an air of, give the impression,
  • What words indicate that someone seems to be doing something, or something seems to be happening?
    seem, appear,
  • What words indicate that something seems to be happening, or something seems to be true?
    it seems, it appears, it looks as if, apparently, to all appearances, by all appearances, seemingly, on the face of it, on the surface, outwardly,
  • What words describe something, such as a feeling or quality, that someone or something seems to have?
    apparent, seeming, superficial,
  • What words indicate that, because something seems to be a certain way, you think something is true?
    judging by, judging from, going by, from, from the way, you'd think, anyone would think,
  • What words indicate that someone or something is not what it seems to be?
    there's more to someone/something than meets the eye, deceptive, deceptively, not be what you/it seem,
  • What words refer to what you think or feel because of what someone or something seems?
    impression, feeling,
  • What words refer to the way something seems to appear?
    appearance, semblance of,
  • 9.4.4.7 Just, almost not

    Use this domain for words indicating that although something is true, it almost is not true.

  • What words indicate that although something is true, it almost is not true?
    just, almost didn't, nearly didn't, only just, narrowly, barely,
  • What words indicate that something bad almost happened, but it did not?
    narrowly missed, close shave
  • What words indicate that you did something, but almost didn't do it?
    just, only just, barely, be a near thing, be a close thing, by the skin of your teeth
  • What words indicate that you can do something, but it is difficult?
    can hardly, can barely, can scarcely
  • What words indicate that something is a particular amount, but not much more?
    just, only just, barely
  • 9.4.4.8 Don't think so, doubt it

    Use this domain for words indicating that you think something is unlikely to be true or to happen.

  • What words indicate that you think it is very unlikely that something is true or will happen?
    don't think, doubt, be doubtful, be dubious, I'd be surprised if, I think not, I wouldn't have thought so
  • 9.4.4.9 Impossible

    Use this domain for words that a speaker uses to indicate that he thinks something is impossible.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    71A Possible, Impossible
  • What words indicate that something cannot be done?
    impossible, not possible, impracticable, there's no way, out of the question, hopeless, impractical
  • What words indicate that your situation makes it impossible for you to do something?
    impossible, not have a hope, not stand a chance, can't possibly, that's out, with the best will in the world, do the impossible
  • What words indicate that something cannot happen?
    impossible, not possible, can't, couldn't, impossibility, inconceivable, unthinkable, by any/no stretch of the imagination, there's no way
  • What words indicate that something is impossible to get?
    unattainable, out of reach
  • What words indicate that one thing makes something else impossible?
    make something impossible, rule out, preclude
  • What words indicate that something is impossible?
    absurd, impenetrable, impervious, inaccessible, inoperable, insurmountable, no chance, no earthly way, outlandish, preposterous, ridiculous, unable, unachievable, unapproachable, undoable, unfeasible, unimaginable, unworkable,
  • 9.4.5 Evidentials

    Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate evidentials. An evidential is when the speaker indicates the source of the information on which an assertion about a situation is based. The following definitions are taken from Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

  • direct evidence: the speaker claims to have witnessed the situation, but does not specify the type of sensory evidence.
    I was there and...,
  • visual evidence: the speaker claims to have seen the situation described.
    with my own eyes I saw...,
  • auditory evidence: the speaker claims to have heard the situation described.
    with my own ears I heard...,
  • sensory evidence: the speaker claims to have physically sensed the situation described. This can be in opposition to one or both of the above senses (i.e. any other sense), or it can indicate sensory evidence that is not further specified (i.e. any sensory evidence).
  • indirect evidence: the speaker claims not to have witnessed the situation, but does not specify further whether the evidence is reported or simply inferred.
    I wasn't there but...,
  • reported evidence: the speaker claims to know of the situation described via verbal means, but does not specify whether it is second-hand, hearsay, or via folklore.
    I heard that...,
  • second-hand evidence: the speaker claims to have heard of the situation described from someone who was a direct witness.
  • evidence from hearsay: the speaker claims to have heard about the situation described, but not from a direct witness.
    it is rumored that...,
  • evidence from folklore: the speaker claims that the situation described is part of established oral history (e.g., mythology).
    according to our ancestors...,
  • inferred evidence: the speaker infers the event/action, but does not specify whether the inference is based on observable results or on a purely mental process.
  • inference from results: the speaker infers the situation described from the evidence at hand (i.e. from the observable results of the causing event/action.)
    from the results I would say...,
  • inference from reasoning: the speaker infers the situation described on the basis of intuition, logic, a dream, previous experience, or some other mental construct.
    I figure that..., I conclude that...,
  • 9.4.5.1 Evaluator

    Use this domain for words indicating who is evaluating the proposition.

  • What words indicate who is evaluating the proposition?
    to, in my opinion,
  • What words indicate that you heard what you are saying from someone else?
    according to, rumor has it, they say, people say, there is talk of, apparently, supposedly, be rumored to be,
  • 9.4.6 Yes

    Use this domain for words that affirm or agree with the truth of something, or that answer a yes/no question in the affirmative.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    69A Affirmation
    69 Affirmation, Negation
  • What words are used to affirm the truth of something?
    yes, yeah, yea, indeed, true, that's true, it is true, verily, agreed, certainly, of course, that's right, I guess so, that is so, a-huh, nod your head, affirmative, positive
  • What words are used to refer to the action of affirming the truth of something?
    affirm, affirmation, confirm, concur, agree, agreement
  • 9.4.6.1 No, not

    Use this domain for words that negate or deny the truth of something, or that answer a yes/no question in the negative.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    69B Negation
    69C Negation Combined with Clitics
  • What words are used to negate the truth of something?
    no, none, not, nay, uh-uh, no one, nothing, never, nowhere, no indeed, by no means, certainly not, most certainly not, absolutely not, shake your head, negative
  • What words are used to refer to the process of denying the truth of something?
    deny, denial, negate, negation, disavow, disavowal, contradict, contradiction, repudiate, repudiation
  • What are the noun forms of these words?
  • 9.4.6.2 Markers expecting an affirmative answer

    Use this domain for words indicating that an affirmative answer is expected to a question.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    69D Markers for an Affirmative Response to Questions
  • What words are used to indicate that an affirmative answer is expected to a question?
    n't,
  • 9.4.6.3 Markers expecting a negative answer

    Use this domain for words indicating that a negative answer is expected to a question.

    Louw Nida Codes: 
    69E Markers for an Negative Response to Questions
  • What words are used to indicate that a negative answer is expected to a question?
    n't...are you,
  • 9.4.7 Subordinating particles

    Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate a subordinate clause. The following definitions are taken from Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

  • subordinating: Often there are special verb forms or morphemes associated with the verb that occur obligatorily in subordinate clauses of certain types. The extent to which such morphemes can be said to have "meaning" varies, since they often co-occur with other markers of subordination. Their function is primarily to signal the type of subordinate clause.
  • Complement clauses: A main verb may take as its direct object a clause. These are often referred to as "Noun clauses" or "Noun complements". The verb form of the subordinate clause is usually determined by the semantics of the main verb, so in this case, our meaning labels will just refer to the context. If a verb form occurs in the complements to words of thinking and believing, the meaning label will be complement to words of thinking and believing.
  • complement to words of thinking
  • complement to words of believing
  • complement to words of saying
  • complement to words of ordering (in English we use an infinitive with these words)
  • complement to words of wanting (again in English these are done with infinitives)
  • complement to words of emotion (surprise, regret, happiness, sadness, etc.; the complement proposition is presupposed to be true)
  • complement to words of obligation
  • complement to words of admonition
  • subsequent: following a reference time in the past.
  • subordinator: marker indicates that the verb is in a subordinate clause.
  • 9.4.8 Adverbial clauses

    Use this section for verbal auxiliaries, affixes, adverbs, and particles that indicate adverbial clauses. The following definitions are taken from Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

  • There are a variety of adverbial clauses (other than conditional clauses) that sometimes require a special verb form. The meaning labels for these uses are coded according to the type of clause (purpose, concessive, etc.), whether any particular temporal deixis is part of the meaning, and under "co-occurrence restrictions," whether a particular conjunction is present. The types of clauses we might run into are:
  • purpose: the clause states the purpose for which the main clause action is taking place. Often called a "final" clause: 'He was saving his money so that his son could go to college'.
    so that
  • concessive: translated in English as 'although, even though, despite the fact that': 'She was saving her money, even though she was a wealthy woman'.
    although, even though, despite the fact that